--- title: Policy Reference kind: documentation weight: 4 toc: true --- This document is the authoritative specification of the Rego policy language (V1). All policies in OPA are written in Rego. ## Built-in Functions The built-in functions for the language provide basic operations to manipulate scalar values (e.g. numbers and strings), and aggregate functions that summarize complex types. ### Comparison | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``x == y`` | ``x`` is equal to ``y`` | | ``x != y`` | ``x`` is not equal to ``y`` | | ``x < y`` | ``x`` is less than ``y`` | | ``x <= y`` | ``x`` is less than or equal to ``y`` | | ``x > y`` | ``x`` is greater than ``y`` | | ``x >= y`` | ``x`` is greater than or equal to ``y`` | ### Numbers | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``z := x + y`` | ``z`` is the sum of ``x`` and ``y`` | | ``z := x - y`` | ``z`` is the difference of ``x`` and ``y`` | | ``z := x * y`` | ``z`` is the product of ``x`` and ``y`` | | ``z := x / y`` | ``z`` is the quotient of ``x`` and ``y`` | | ``z := x % y`` | ``z`` is the remainder from the division of ``x`` and ``y`` | | ``output := round(x)`` | ``output`` is ``x`` rounded to the nearest integer | | ``output := abs(x)`` | ``output`` is the absolute value of ``x`` | ### Aggregates | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``output := count(collection_or_string)`` | ``output`` is the length of the object, array, set, or string provided as input | | ``output := sum(array_or_set)`` | ``output`` is the sum of the numbers in ``array_or_set`` | | ``output := product(array_or_set)`` | ``output`` is the product of the numbers in ``array_or_set`` | | ``output := max(array_or_set)`` | ``output`` is the maximum value in ``array_or_set`` | | ``output := min(array_or_set)`` | ``output`` is the minimum value in ``array_or_set`` | | ``output := sort(array_or_set)`` | ``output`` is the sorted ``array`` containing elements from ``array_or_set``. | | ``output := all(array_or_set)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if all of the values in ``array_or_set`` are ``true``. A collection of length 0 returns ``true``.| | ``output := any(array_or_set)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if any of the values in ``array_or_set`` is ``true``. A collection of length 0 returns ``false``.| ### Arrays | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``output := array.concat(array, array)`` | ``output`` is the result of concatenating the two input arrays together. | ``output := array.slice(array, startIndex, stopIndex)`` | ``output`` is the part of the ``array`` from ``startIndex`` to ``stopIndex`` including the first but excluding the last. If `startIndex >= stopIndex` then `output == []`. If both `startIndex` and `stopIndex` are less than zero, `output == []`. Otherwise, `startIndex` and `stopIndex` are clamped to 0 and `count(array)` respectively. | ### Sets | Built-in | Description | | -------- | ----------- | | ``s3 := s1 & s2`` | ``s3`` is the intersection of ``s1`` and ``s2``. | | s3 := s1 | s2 | ``s3`` is the union of ``s1`` and ``s2``. | | ``s3 := s1 - s2`` | ``s3`` is the difference between ``s1`` and ``s2``, i.e., the elements in ``s1`` that are not in ``s2`` | | ``output := intersection(set[set])`` | ``output`` is the intersection of the sets in the input set | | ``output := union(set[set])`` | ``output`` is the union of the sets in the input set | ### Objects | Built-in | Description | | -------- | ----------- | | `value := object.get(object, key, default)` | `value` is the value stored by the `object` at `key`. If no value is found, `default` is returned. | | `output := object.remove(object, keys)` | `output` is a new object which is the result of removing the specified `keys` from `object`. `keys` must be either an array, object, or set of keys. | | `output := object.union(objectA, objectB)` | `output` is a new object which is the result of an asymmetric recursive union of two objects where conflicts are resolved by choosing the key from the right-hand object (`objectB`). For example: `object.union({"a": 1, "b": 2, "c": {"d": 3}}, {"a": 7, "c": {"d": 4, "e": 5}})` will result in `{"a": 7, "b": 2, "c": {"d": 4, "e": 5}}` | | `filtered := object.filter(object, keys)` | `filtered` is a new object with the remaining data from `object` with only keys specified in `keys` which is an array, object, or set of keys. For example: `object.filter({"a": {"b": "x", "c": "y"}, "d": "z"}, ["a"])` will result in `{"a": {"b": "x", "c": "y"}}`). | | `filtered := json.filter(object, paths)` | `filtered` is the remaining data from `object` with only keys specified in `paths` which is an array or set of JSON string paths. For example: `json.filter({"a": {"b": "x", "c": "y"}}, ["a/b"])` will result in `{"a": {"b": "x"}}`). Paths are not filtered in-order and are deduplicated before being evaluated. | | `output := json.remove(object, paths)` | `output` is a new object which is the result of removing all keys specified in `paths` which is an array or set of JSON string paths. For example: `json.remove{"a": {"b": "x", "c": "y"}, ["a/b"]}` will result in `{"a": {"c": "y"}}`. Paths are not removed in-order and are deduplicated before being evaluated. | * When `keys` are provided as an object only the top level keys on the object will be used, values are ignored. For example: `object.remove({"a": {"b": {"c": 2}}, "x": 123}, {"a": 1}) == {"x": 123}` regardless of the value for key `a` in the keys object, the following `keys` object gives the same result `object.remove({"a": {"b": {"c": 2}}, "x": 123}, {"a": {"b": {"foo": "bar"}}}) == {"x": 123}`. * The `json` string `paths` may reference into array values by using index numbers. For example with the object `{"a": ["x", "y", "z"]}` the path `a/1` references `y`. Nested structures are supported as well, for example: `{"a": ["x", {"y": {"y1": {"y2": ["foo", "bar"]}}}, "z"]}` the path `a/1/y1/y2/0` references `"foo"`. * The `json` string `paths` support `~0`, or `~1` characters for `~` and `/` characters in key names. It does not support `-` for last index of an array. For example the path `/foo~1bar~0` will reference `baz` in `{ "foo/bar~": "baz" }`. * The `json` string `paths` may be an array of string path segments rather than a `/` separated string. For example the path `a/b/c` can be passed in as `["a", "b", "c"]`. ### Strings | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``output := concat(delimiter, array_or_set)`` | ``output`` is the result of joining together the elements of ``array_or_set`` with the string ``delimiter`` | | ``contains(string, search)`` | true if ``string`` contains ``search`` | | ``endswith(string, search)`` | true if ``string`` ends with ``search`` | | ``output := format_int(number, base)`` | ``output`` is string representation of ``number`` in the given ``base`` | | ``output := indexof(string, search)`` | ``output`` is the index inside ``string`` where ``search`` first occurs, or -1 if ``search`` does not exist | | ``output := lower(string)`` | ``output`` is ``string`` after converting to lower case | | ``output := replace(string, old, new)`` | ``output`` is a ``string`` representing ``string`` with all instances of ``old`` replaced by ``new`` | | ``output := strings.replace_n(patterns, string)`` | ``patterns`` is an object with old, new string key value pairs (e.g. ``{"old1": "new1", "old2": "new2", ...}``). ``output`` is a ``string`` with all old strings inside ``patterns`` replaced by the new strings | | ``output := split(string, delimiter)`` | ``output`` is ``array[string]`` representing elements of ``string`` separated by ``delimiter`` | | ``output := sprintf(string, values)`` | ``output`` is a ``string`` representing ``string`` formatted by the values in the ``array`` ``values``. | | ``startswith(string, search)`` | true if ``string`` begins with ``search`` | | ``output := substring(string, start, length)`` | ``output`` is the portion of ``string`` from index ``start`` and having a length of ``length``. If ``length`` is less than zero, ``length`` is the remainder of the ``string``. If ``start`` is greater than the length of the string, ``output`` is empty. It is invalid to pass a negative offset to this function. | | ``output := trim(string, cutset)`` | ``output`` is a ``string`` representing ``string`` with all leading and trailing instances of the characters in ``cutset`` removed. | | ``output := trim_left(string, cutset)`` | ``output`` is a ``string`` representing ``string`` with all leading instances of the characters in ``cutset`` removed. | | ``output := trim_prefix(string, prefix)`` | ``output`` is a ``string`` representing ``string`` with leading instance of ``prefix`` removed. If ``string`` doesn't start with prefix, ``string`` is returned unchanged.| | ``output := trim_right(string, cutset)`` | ``output`` is a ``string`` representing ``string`` with all trailing instances of the characters in ``cutset`` removed. | | ``output := trim_suffix(string, suffix)`` | ``output`` is a ``string`` representing ``string`` with trailing instance of ``suffix`` removed. If ``string`` doesn't end with suffix, ``string`` is returned unchanged.| | ``output := trim_space(string)`` | ``output`` is a ``string`` representing ``string`` with all leading and trailing white space removed.| | ``output := upper(string)`` | ``output`` is ``string`` after converting to upper case | ### Regex | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``re_match(pattern, value)`` | true if the ``value`` matches the regex ``pattern`` | | ``output := regex.split(pattern, string)`` | ``output`` is ``array[string]`` representing elements of ``string`` separated by ``pattern`` | | ``regex.globs_match(glob1, glob2)`` | true if the intersection of regex-style globs ``glob1`` and ``glob2`` matches a non-empty set of non-empty strings. The set of regex symbols is limited for this builtin: only ``.``, ``*``, ``+``, ``[``, ``-``, ``]`` and ``\`` are treated as special symbols. | | ``output := regex.template_match(pattern, string, delimiter_start, delimiter_end)`` | ``output`` is true if ``string`` matches ``pattern``. ``pattern`` is a string containing ``0..n`` regular expressions delimited by ``delimiter_start`` and ``delimiter_end``. Example ``regex.template_match("urn:foo:{.*}", "urn:foo:bar:baz", "{", "}")`` returns ``true``. | | ``output := regex.find_n(pattern, string, number)`` | ``output`` is an ``array[string]`` with the ``number`` of values matching the ``pattern``. A ``number`` of ``-1`` means all matches. | | ``output := regex.find_all_string_submatch_n(pattern, string, number)`` | ``output`` is an ``array[array[string]]`` with the outer `array` including a ``number`` of matches which match the ``pattern``. A ``number`` of ``-1`` means all matches. | ### Glob | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``output := glob.match(pattern, delimiters, match)`` | ``output`` is true if ``match`` can be found in ``pattern`` which is separated by ``delimiters``. For valid patterns, check the table below. Argument ``delimiters`` is an array of single-characters (e.g. `[".", ":"]`). If ``delimiters`` is empty, it defaults to ``["."]``. | | ``output := glob.quote_meta(pattern)`` | ``output`` is the escaped string of ``pattern``. Calling ``glob.quote_meta("*.github.com", output)`` returns ``\\*.github.com`` as ``output``. | The following table shows examples of how ``glob.match`` works: | ``call`` | ``output`` | Description | | -------- | ---------- | ----------- | | ``output := glob.match("*.github.com", [], "api.github.com")`` | ``true`` | A glob with the default ``["."]`` delimiter. | | ``output := glob.match("*.github.com", [], "api.cdn.github.com")`` | ``false`` | A glob with the default ``["."]`` delimiter. | | ``output := glob.match("*:github:com", [":"], "api:github:com")`` | ``true`` | A glob with delimiters ``[":"]``. | | ``output := glob.match("api.**.com", [], "api.github.com")`` | ``true`` | A super glob. | | ``output := glob.match("api.**.com", [], "api.cdn.github.com")`` | ``true`` | A super glob. | | ``output := glob.match("?at", [], "cat")`` | ``true`` | A glob with a single character wildcard. | | ``output := glob.match("?at", [], "at")`` | ``false`` | A glob with a single character wildcard. | | ``output := glob.match("[abc]at", [], "bat")`` | ``true`` | A glob with character-list matchers. | | ``output := glob.match("[abc]at", [], "cat")`` | ``true`` | A glob with character-list matchers. | | ``output := glob.match("[abc]at", [], "lat")`` | ``false`` | A glob with character-list matchers. | | ``output := glob.match("[!abc]at", [], "cat")`` | ``false`` | A glob with negated character-list matchers. | | ``output := glob.match("[!abc]at", [], "lat")`` | ``true`` | A glob with negated character-list matchers. | | ``output := glob.match("[a-c]at", [], "cat")`` | ``true`` | A glob with character-range matchers. | | ``output := glob.match("[a-c]at", [], "lat")`` | ``false`` | A glob with character-range matchers. | | ``output := glob.match("[!a-c]at", [], "cat")`` | ``false`` | A glob with negated character-range matchers. | | ``output := glob.match("[!a-c]at", [], "lat")`` | ``true`` | A glob with negated character-range matchers. | | ``output := glob.match("{cat,bat,[fr]at}", [], "cat")`` | ``true`` | A glob with pattern-alternatives matchers. | | ``output := glob.match("{cat,bat,[fr]at}", [], "bat")`` | ``true`` | A glob with pattern-alternatives matchers. | | ``output := glob.match("{cat,bat,[fr]at}", [], "rat")`` | ``true`` | A glob with pattern-alternatives matchers. | | ``output := glob.match("{cat,bat,[fr]at}", [], "at")`` | ``false`` | A glob with pattern-alternatives matchers. | ### Bitwise | Built-in | Description | | --- | --- | | ``z := bits.or(x, y)`` | ``z`` is the bitwise or of integers ``x`` and ``y`` | | ``z := bits.and(x, y)`` | ``z`` is the bitwise and of integers ``x`` and ``y`` | | ``z := bits.negate(x)`` | ``z`` is the bitwise negation (flip) of integer ``x`` | | ``z := bits.xor(x, y)`` | ``z`` is the bitwise exclusive-or of integers ``x`` and ``y`` | | ``z := bits.lsh(x, s)`` | ``z`` is the bitshift of integer ``x`` by ``s`` bits to the left | | ``z := bits.rsh(x, s)`` | ``z`` is the bitshift of integer ``x`` by ``s`` bits to the right | ### Conversions | Built-in | Description | | --- | --- | | ``output := to_number(x)`` | ``output`` is ``x`` converted to a number. `null` is converted to zero, `true` and `false` are converted to one and zero (respectively), `string` values are interpreted as base 10, and `numbers` are a no-op. Other types are not supported. | ### Units | Built-in | Description | | --- | --- | | ``output := units.parse_bytes(x)`` | ``output`` is ``x`` converted to a number with support for standard byte units (e.g., KB, KiB, etc.) KB, MB, GB, and TB are treated as decimal units and KiB, MiB, GiB, and TiB are treated as binary units. | ### Types | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``output := is_number(x)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if ``x`` is a number; otherwise undefined| | ``output := is_string(x)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if ``x`` is a string; otherwise undefined | | ``output := is_boolean(x)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if ``x`` is a boolean; otherwise undefined | | ``output := is_array(x)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if ``x`` is an array; otherwise undefined | | ``output := is_set(x)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if ``x`` is a set; otherwise undefined | | ``output := is_object(x)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if ``x`` is an object; otherwise undefined | | ``output := is_null(x)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if ``x`` is null; otherwise undefined | | ``output := type_name(x)`` | ``output`` is the type of ``x`` | ### Encoding | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``output := base64.encode(x)`` | ``output`` is ``x`` serialized to a base64 encoded string | | ``output := base64.decode(string)`` | ``output`` is ``x`` deserialized from a base64 encoding string | | ``output := base64url.encode(x)`` | ``output`` is ``x`` serialized to a base64url encoded string | | ``output := base64url.decode(string)`` | ``output`` is ``string`` deserialized from a base64url encoding string | | ``output := urlquery.encode(string)`` | ``output`` is ``string`` serialized to a URL query parameter encoded string | | ``output := urlquery.encode_object(object)`` | ``output`` is ``object`` serialized to a URL query parameter encoded string | | ``output := urlquery.decode(string)`` | ``output`` is ``string`` deserialized from a URL query parameter encoded string | | ``output := json.marshal(x)`` | ``output`` is ``x`` serialized to a JSON string | | ``output := json.unmarshal(string)`` | ``output`` is ``string`` deserialized to a term from a JSON encoded string | | ``output := yaml.marshal(x)`` | ``output`` is ``x`` serialized to a YAML string | | ``output := yaml.unmarshal(string)`` | ``output`` is ``string`` deserialized to a term from YAML encoded string | ### Token Signing OPA provides two builtins that implement JSON Web Signature [RFC7515](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7515) functionality. ``io.jwt.encode_sign_raw()`` takes three JSON Objects (strings) as parameters and returns their JWS Compact Serialization. This builtin should be used by those that want maximum control over the signing and serialization procedure. It is important to remember that StringOrURI values are compared as case-sensitive strings with no transformations or canonicalizations applied. Therefore, line breaks and whitespaces are significant. ``io.jwt.encode_sign()`` takes three Rego Objects as parameters and returns their JWS Compact Serialization. This builtin should be used by those that want to use rego objects for signing during policy evaluation. > Note that with `io.jwt.encode_sign` the Rego objects are serialized to JSON with standard formatting applied > whereas the `io.jwt.encode_sign_raw` built-in will **not** affect whitespace of the strings passed in. > This will mean that the final encoded token may have different string values, but the decoded and parsed > JSON will match. The following algorithms are supported: ES256 "ES256" // ECDSA using P-256 and SHA-256 ES384 "ES384" // ECDSA using P-384 and SHA-384 ES512 "ES512" // ECDSA using P-521 and SHA-512 HS256 "HS256" // HMAC using SHA-256 HS384 "HS384" // HMAC using SHA-384 HS512 "HS512" // HMAC using SHA-512 NoSignature "none" PS256 "PS256" // RSASSA-PSS using SHA256 and MGF1-SHA256 PS384 "PS384" // RSASSA-PSS using SHA384 and MGF1-SHA384 PS512 "PS512" // RSASSA-PSS using SHA512 and MGF1-SHA512 RS256 "RS256" // RSASSA-PKCS-v1.5 using SHA-256 RS384 "RS384" // RSASSA-PKCS-v1.5 using SHA-384 RS512 "RS512" // RSASSA-PKCS-v1.5 using SHA-512
| Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``output := io.jwt.encode_sign_raw(headers, payload, key)`` | ``headers``, ``payload`` and ``key`` as strings that represent the JWS Protected Header, JWS Payload and JSON Web Key ([RFC7517](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7517)) respectively.| | ``output := io.jwt.encode_sign(headers, payload, key)`` | ``headers``, ``payload`` and ``key`` are JSON objects that represent the JWS Protected Header, JWS Payload and JSON Web Key ([RFC7517](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7517)) respectively.| > Note that the key's provided should be base64 encoded as per the specification ([RFC7517](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7517)). > This differs from the plain text secrets provided with the algorithm specific verify built-ins described below. #### Token Signing Examples ```live:jwt:module:hidden package jwt ``` ##### Symmetric Key (HMAC with SHA-256) ```live:jwt/hs256:query:merge_down io.jwt.encode_sign({ "typ": "JWT", "alg": "HS256" }, { "iss": "joe", "exp": 1300819380, "aud": ["bob", "saul"], "http://example.com/is_root": true, "privateParams": { "private_one": "one", "private_two": "two" } }, { "kty": "oct", "k": "AyM1SysPpbyDfgZld3umj1qzKObwVMkoqQ-EstJQLr_T-1qS0gZH75aKtMN3Yj0iPS4hcgUuTwjAzZr1Z9CAow" }) ``` ```live:jwt/hs256:output ``` ##### Symmetric Key with empty JSON payload ```live:jwt/hs256_nopayload:query:merge_down io.jwt.encode_sign({ "typ": "JWT", "alg": "HS256"}, {}, { "kty": "oct", "k": "AyM1SysPpbyDfgZld3umj1qzKObwVMkoqQ-EstJQLr_T-1qS0gZH75aKtMN3Yj0iPS4hcgUuTwjAzZr1Z9CAow" }) ``` ```live:jwt/hs256_nopayload:output ``` ##### RSA Key (RSA Signature with SHA-256) ```live:jwt/rs256:query:merge_down io.jwt.encode_sign({ "alg": "RS256" }, { "iss": "joe", "exp": 1300819380, "aud": ["bob", "saul"], "http://example.com/is_root": true, "privateParams": { "private_one": "one", "private_two": "two" } }, { "kty": "RSA", "n": "ofgWCuLjybRlzo0tZWJjNiuSfb4p4fAkd_wWJcyQoTbji9k0l8W26mPddxHmfHQp-Vaw-4qPCJrcS2mJPMEzP1Pt0Bm4d4QlL-yRT-SFd2lZS-pCgNMsD1W_YpRPEwOWvG6b32690r2jZ47soMZo9wGzjb_7OMg0LOL-bSf63kpaSHSXndS5z5rexMdbBYUsLA9e-KXBdQOS-UTo7WTBEMa2R2CapHg665xsmtdVMTBQY4uDZlxvb3qCo5ZwKh9kG4LT6_I5IhlJH7aGhyxXFvUK-DWNmoudF8NAco9_h9iaGNj8q2ethFkMLs91kzk2PAcDTW9gb54h4FRWyuXpoQ", "e": "AQAB", "d": "Eq5xpGnNCivDflJsRQBXHx1hdR1k6Ulwe2JZD50LpXyWPEAeP88vLNO97IjlA7_GQ5sLKMgvfTeXZx9SE-7YwVol2NXOoAJe46sui395IW_GO-pWJ1O0BkTGoVEn2bKVRUCgu-GjBVaYLU6f3l9kJfFNS3E0QbVdxzubSu3Mkqzjkn439X0M_V51gfpRLI9JYanrC4D4qAdGcopV_0ZHHzQlBjudU2QvXt4ehNYTCBr6XCLQUShb1juUO1ZdiYoFaFQT5Tw8bGUl_x_jTj3ccPDVZFD9pIuhLhBOneufuBiB4cS98l2SR_RQyGWSeWjnczT0QU91p1DhOVRuOopznQ", "p": "4BzEEOtIpmVdVEZNCqS7baC4crd0pqnRH_5IB3jw3bcxGn6QLvnEtfdUdiYrqBdss1l58BQ3KhooKeQTa9AB0Hw_Py5PJdTJNPY8cQn7ouZ2KKDcmnPGBY5t7yLc1QlQ5xHdwW1VhvKn-nXqhJTBgIPgtldC-KDV5z-y2XDwGUc", "q": "uQPEfgmVtjL0Uyyx88GZFF1fOunH3-7cepKmtH4pxhtCoHqpWmT8YAmZxaewHgHAjLYsp1ZSe7zFYHj7C6ul7TjeLQeZD_YwD66t62wDmpe_HlB-TnBA-njbglfIsRLtXlnDzQkv5dTltRJ11BKBBypeeF6689rjcJIDEz9RWdc", "dp": "BwKfV3Akq5_MFZDFZCnW-wzl-CCo83WoZvnLQwCTeDv8uzluRSnm71I3QCLdhrqE2e9YkxvuxdBfpT_PI7Yz-FOKnu1R6HsJeDCjn12Sk3vmAktV2zb34MCdy7cpdTh_YVr7tss2u6vneTwrA86rZtu5Mbr1C1XsmvkxHQAdYo0", "dq": "h_96-mK1R_7glhsum81dZxjTnYynPbZpHziZjeeHcXYsXaaMwkOlODsWa7I9xXDoRwbKgB719rrmI2oKr6N3Do9U0ajaHF-NKJnwgjMd2w9cjz3_-kyNlxAr2v4IKhGNpmM5iIgOS1VZnOZ68m6_pbLBSp3nssTdlqvd0tIiTHU", "qi": "IYd7DHOhrWvxkwPQsRM2tOgrjbcrfvtQJipd-DlcxyVuuM9sQLdgjVk2oy26F0EmpScGLq2MowX7fhd_QJQ3ydy5cY7YIBi87w93IKLEdfnbJtoOPLUW0ITrJReOgo1cq9SbsxYawBgfp_gh6A5603k2-ZQwVK0JKSHuLFkuQ3U" }) ``` ```live:jwt/rs256:output ``` ##### Raw Token Signing If you need to generate the signature for a serialized token you an use the `io.jwt.encode_sign_raw` built-in function which accepts JSON serialized string parameters. ```live:jwt/raw:query:merge_down io.jwt.encode_sign_raw( `{"typ":"JWT","alg":"HS256"}`, `{"iss":"joe","exp":1300819380,"http://example.com/is_root":true}`, `{"kty":"oct","k":"AyM1SysPpbyDfgZld3umj1qzKObwVMkoqQ-EstJQLr_T-1qS0gZH75aKtMN3Yj0iPS4hcgUuTwjAzZr1Z9CAow"}` ) ``` ```live:jwt/raw:output ``` ### Token Verification | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``output := io.jwt.verify_rs256(string, certificate)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if the RS256 signature of the input token is valid. ``certificate`` is the PEM encoded certificate, PEM encoded public key, or the JWK key (set) used to verify the RS256 signature| | ``output := io.jwt.verify_ps256(string, certificate)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if the PS256 signature of the input token is valid. ``certificate`` is the PEM encoded certificate, PEM encoded public key or the JWK key (set) used to verify the PS256 signature| | ``output := io.jwt.verify_es256(string, certificate)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if the ES256 signature of the input token is valid. ``certificate`` is the PEM encoded certificate, PEM encoded public key or the JWK key (set) used to verify the ES256 signature| | ``output := io.jwt.verify_hs256(string, secret)`` | ``output`` is ``true`` if the Secret signature of the input token is valid. ``secret`` is a plain text secret used to verify the HS256 signature| | ``output := io.jwt.decode(string)`` | ``output`` is of the form ``[header, payload, sig]``. ``header`` and ``payload`` are ``object``. ``sig`` is the hexadecimal representation of the signature on the token. | | ``output := io.jwt.decode_verify(string, constraints)`` | ``output`` is of the form ``[valid, header, payload]``. If the input token verifies and meets the requirements of ``constraints`` then ``valid`` is ``true`` and ``header`` and ``payload`` are objects containing the JOSE header and the JWT claim set. Otherwise, ``valid`` is ``false`` and ``header`` and ``payload`` are ``{}``. | > Note that the `io.jwt.verify_XX` built-in methods verify **only** the signature. They **do not** provide any validation for the JWT > payload and any claims specified. The `io.jwt.decode_verify` built-in will verify the payload and **all** standard claims. The input `string` is a JSON Web Token encoded with JWS Compact Serialization. JWE and JWS JSON Serialization are not supported. If nested signing was used, the ``header``, ``payload`` and ``signature`` will represent the most deeply nested token. For ``io.jwt.decode_verify``, ``constraints`` is an object with the following members: | Name | Meaning | Required | | ---- | ------- | -------- | | ``cert`` | A PEM encoded certificate, PEM encoded public key, or a JWK key (set) containing an RSA or ECDSA public key. | See below | | ``secret`` | The secret key for HS256, HS384 and HS512 verification. | See below | | ``alg`` | The JWA algorithm name to use. If it is absent then any algorithm that is compatible with the key is accepted. | Optional | | ``iss`` | The issuer string. If it is present the only tokens with this issuer are accepted. If it is absent then any issuer is accepted. | Optional | | ``time`` | The time in nanoseconds to verify the token at. If this is present then the ``exp`` and ``nbf`` claims are compared against this value. If it is absent then they are compared against the current time. | Optional | | ``aud`` | The audience that the verifier identifies with. If this is present then the ``aud`` claim is checked against it. **If it is absent then the ``aud`` claim must be absent too.** | Optional | Exactly one of ``cert`` and ``secret`` must be present. If there are any unrecognized constraints then the token is considered invalid. #### Token Verification Examples The examples below use the following token: ```live:jwt/verify:module es256_token = "eyJ0eXAiOiAiSldUIiwgImFsZyI6ICJFUzI1NiJ9.eyJuYmYiOiAxNDQ0NDc4NDAwLCAiaXNzIjogInh4eCJ9.lArczfN-pIL8oUU-7PU83u-zfXougXBZj6drFeKFsPEoVhy9WAyiZlRshYqjTSXdaw8yw2L-ovt4zTUZb2PWMg" ``` ##### Using JWKS This example shows a two-step process to verify the token signature and then decode it for further checks of the payload content. This approach gives more flexibility in verifying only the claims that the policy needs to enforce. ```live:jwt/verify/jwks:module jwks = `{ "keys": [{ "kty":"EC", "crv":"P-256", "x":"z8J91ghFy5o6f2xZ4g8LsLH7u2wEpT2ntj8loahnlsE", "y":"7bdeXLH61KrGWRdh7ilnbcGQACxykaPKfmBccTHIOUo" }] }` ``` ```live:jwt/verify/jwks/two_step:query:merge_down io.jwt.verify_es256(es256_token, jwks) # Verify the token with the JWKS [header, payload, _] := io.jwt.decode(es256_token) # Decode the token payload.iss == "xxx" # Ensure the issuer (`iss`) claim is the expected value ``` ```live:jwt/verify/jwks/two_step:output ``` The next example shows doing the token signature verification, decoding, and content checks all in one call using `io.jwt.decode_verify`. Note that this gives less flexibility in validating the payload content as **all** claims defined in the JWT spec are verified with the provided constraints. ```live:jwt/verify/jwks/one_step:query:merge_down [valid, header, payload] := io.jwt.decode_verify(es256_token, { "cert": jwks, "iss": "xxx", }) ``` ```live:jwt/verify/jwks/one_step:output ``` ##### Using PEM encoded X.509 Certificate The following examples will demonstrate verifying tokens using an X.509 Certificate defined as: ```live:jwt/verify/cert:module cert = `-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE----- MIIBcDCCARagAwIBAgIJAMZmuGSIfvgzMAoGCCqGSM49BAMCMBMxETAPBgNVBAMM CHdoYXRldmVyMB4XDTE4MDgxMDE0Mjg1NFoXDTE4MDkwOTE0Mjg1NFowEzERMA8G A1UEAwwId2hhdGV2ZXIwWTATBgcqhkjOPQIBBggqhkjOPQMBBwNCAATPwn3WCEXL mjp/bFniDwuwsfu7bASlPae2PyWhqGeWwe23Xlyx+tSqxlkXYe4pZ23BkAAscpGj yn5gXHExyDlKo1MwUTAdBgNVHQ4EFgQUElRjSoVgKjUqY5AXz2o74cLzzS8wHwYD VR0jBBgwFoAUElRjSoVgKjUqY5AXz2o74cLzzS8wDwYDVR0TAQH/BAUwAwEB/zAK BggqhkjOPQQDAgNIADBFAiEA4yQ/88ZrUX68c6kOe9G11u8NUaUzd8pLOtkKhniN OHoCIHmNX37JOqTcTzGn2u9+c8NlnvZ0uDvsd1BmKPaUmjmm -----END CERTIFICATE-----` ``` This example shows a two-step process to verify the token signature and then decode it for further checks of the payload content. This approach gives more flexibility in verifying only the claims that the policy needs to enforce. ```live:jwt/verify/cert/two_step:query:merge_down io.jwt.verify_es256(es256_token, cert) # Verify the token with the certificate [header, payload, _] := io.jwt.decode(es256_token) # Decode the token payload.iss == "xxx" # Ensure the issuer claim is the expected value ``` ```live:jwt/verify/cert/two_step:output ``` The next example shows doing the same token signature verification, decoding, and content checks but instead with a single call to `io.jwt.decode_verify`. Note that this gives less flexibility in validating the payload content as **all** claims defined in the JWT spec are verified with the provided constraints. ```live:jwt/verify/cert/one_step:query:merge_down [valid, header, payload] := io.jwt.decode_verify( # Decode and verify in one-step es256_token, { # With the supplied constraints: "cert": cert, # Verify the token with the certificate "iss": "xxx", # Ensure the issuer claim is the expected value } ) ``` ```live:jwt/verify/cert/one_step:output ``` ##### Round Trip - Sign and Verify This example shows how to encode a token, verify, and decode it with the different options available. Start with using the `io.jwt.encode_sign_raw` built-in: ```live:jwt/verify/round_trip_raw:module:hidden ``` ```live:jwt/verify/round_trip_raw:query raw_result_hs256 := io.jwt.encode_sign_raw( `{"alg":"HS256","typ":"JWT"}`, `{}`, `{"kty":"oct","k":"Zm9v"}` # "Zm9v" is the base64 URL encoded string "foo" ) # Important!! - Use the un-encoded plain text secret to verify and decode raw_result_valid_hs256 := io.jwt.verify_hs256(raw_result_hs256, "foo") raw_result_parts_hs256 := io.jwt.decode_verify(raw_result_hs256, {"secret": "foo"}) ``` ```live:jwt/verify/round_trip_raw:output ``` Now encode the and sign the same token contents but with `io.jwt.encode_sign` instead of the `raw` varient. ```live:jwt/verify/round_trip:module:hidden ``` ```live:jwt/verify/round_trip:query:merge_down result_hs256 := io.jwt.encode_sign( { "alg":"HS256", "typ":"JWT" }, {}, { "kty":"oct", "k":"Zm9v" } ) # Important!! - Use the un-encoded plain text secret to verify and decode result_parts_hs256 := io.jwt.decode_verify(result_hs256, {"secret": "foo"}) result_valid_hs256 := io.jwt.verify_hs256(result_hs256, "foo") ``` ```live:jwt/verify/round_trip:output ``` > Note that the resulting encoded token is different from the first example using > `io.jwt.encode_sign_raw`. The reason is that the `io.jwt.encode_sign` function > is using canonicalized formatting for the header and payload whereas > `io.jwt.encode_sign_raw` does not change the whitespace of the strings passed > in. The decoded and parsed JSON values are still the same. ### Time | Built-in | Description | | -------- | ----------- | | ``output := time.now_ns()`` | ``output`` is a ``number`` representing the current time since epoch in nanoseconds. | | ``output := time.parse_ns(layout, value)`` | ``output`` is a ``number`` representing the time ``value`` in nanoseconds since epoch. See the [Go `time` package documentation](https://golang.org/pkg/time/#Parse) for more details on ``layout``. | | ``output := time.parse_rfc3339_ns(value)`` | ``output`` is a ``number`` representing the time ``value`` in nanoseconds since epoch. | | ``output := time.parse_duration_ns(duration)`` | ``output`` is a ``number`` representing the duration ``duration`` in nanoseconds. See the [Go `time` package documentation](https://golang.org/pkg/time/#ParseDuration) for more details on ``duration``. | | ``output := time.date(ns)``
``output := time.date([ns, tz])`` | ``output`` is of the form ``[year, month, day]``, which includes the ``year``, ``month`` (0-12), and ``day`` (0-31) as ``number``s representing the date from the nanoseconds since epoch (``ns``) in the timezone (``tz``), if supplied, or as UTC.| | ``output := time.clock(ns)``
``output := time.clock([ns, tz])`` | ``output`` is of the form ``[hour, minute, second]``, which outputs the ``hour``, ``minute`` (0-59), and ``second`` (0-59) as ``number``s representing the time of day for the nanoseconds since epoch (``ns``) in the timezone (``tz``), if supplied, or as UTC. | | ``day := time.weekday(ns)``
``day := time.weekday([ns, tz])`` | outputs the ``day`` as ``string`` representing the day of the week for the nanoseconds since epoch (``ns``) in the timezone (``tz``), if supplied, or as UTC. | | ``output := time.add_date(ns, years, months, days)`` | ``output`` is a ``number`` representing the time since epoch in nanoseconds after adding the ``years``, ``months`` and ``days`` to ``ns``. See the [Go `time` package documentation](https://golang.org/pkg/time/#Time.AddDate) for more details on ``add_date``. | > Multiple calls to the `time.now_ns` built-in function within a single policy evaluation query will always return the same value. Timezones can be specified as * an [IANA Time Zone](https://www.iana.org/time-zones) string e.g. "America/New_York" * "UTC" or "", which are equivalent to not passing a timezone (i.e. will return as UTC) * "Local", which will use the local timezone. Note that the opa executable will need access to the timezone files in the environment it is running in (see the [Go time.LoadLocation()](https://golang.org/pkg/time/#LoadLocation) documentation for more information). ### Cryptography | Built-in | Description | | -------- | ----------- | | ``output := crypto.x509.parse_certificates(string)`` | ``output`` is an array of X.509 certificates represented as JSON objects. | | ``output := crypto.md5(string)`` | ``output`` is ``string`` md5 hashed. | | ``output := crypto.sha1(string)`` | ``output`` is ``string`` sha1 hashed. | | ``output := crypto.sha256(string)`` | ``output`` is ``string`` sha256 hashed. | ### Graphs | Built-in | Description | | --- | --- | | ``walk(x, [path, value])`` | ``walk`` is a relation that produces ``path`` and ``value`` pairs for documents under ``x``. ``path`` is ``array`` representing a pointer to ``value`` in ``x``. Queries can use ``walk`` to traverse documents nested under ``x`` (recursively). | ### HTTP | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``response := http.send(request)`` | ``http.send`` executes an HTTP `request` and returns a `response`. | The `request` object parameter may contain the following fields: | Field | Required | Type | Description | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | `url` | yes | `string` | HTTP URL to specify in the request (e.g., `"https://www.openpolicyagent.org"`). | | `method` | yes | `string` | HTTP method to specify in request (e.g., `"GET"`, `"POST"`, `"PUT"`, etc.) | | `body` | no | `any` | HTTP message body to include in request. The value will be serialized to JSON. | | `raw_body` | no | `string` | HTTP message body to include in request. The value WILL NOT be serialized. Use this for non-JSON messages. | | `headers` | no | `object` | HTTP headers to include in the request (e.g,. `{"X-Opa": "rules"}`). | | `enable_redirect` | no | `boolean` | Follow HTTP redirects. Default: `false`. | | `force_json_decode` | no | `boolean` | Decode the HTTP response message body as JSON even if the `Content-Type` header is missing. Default: `false`. | | `tls_use_system_certs` | no | `boolean` | Use the system certificate pool. Default: `false`. | | `tls_ca_cert` | no | `string` | String containing a root certificate in PEM encoded format. | | `tls_ca_cert_file` | no | `string` | Path to file containing a root certificate in PEM encoded format. | | `tls_ca_cert_env_variable` | no | `string` | Environment variable containing a root certificate in PEM encoded format. | | `tls_client_cert` | no | `string` | String containing a client certificate in PEM encoded format. | | `tls_client_cert_file` | no | `string` | Path to file containing a client certificate in PEM encoded format. | | `tls_client_cert_env_variable` | no | `string` | Environment variable containing a client certificate in PEM encoded format. | | `tls_client_key` | no | `string` | String containing a key in PEM encoded format. | | `tls_client_key_file` | no | `string` | Path to file containing a key in PEM encoded format. | | `tls_client_key_env_variable` | no | `string` | Environment variable containing a client key in PEM encoded format. | | `timeout` | no | `string` or `number` | Timeout for the HTTP request with a default of 5 seconds (`5s`). Numbers provided are in nanoseconds. Strings must be a valid duration string where a duration string is a possibly signed sequence of decimal numbers, each with optional fraction and a unit suffix, such as "300ms", "-1.5h" or "2h45m". Valid time units are "ns", "us" (or "µs"), "ms", "s", "m", "h". A zero timeout means no timeout.| | `tls_insecure_skip_verify` | no | `bool` | Allows for skipping TLS verification when calling a network endpoint. Not recommended for production. | | `tls_server_name` | no | `string` | Sets the hostname that is sent in the client Server Name Indication and that be will be used for server certificate validation. If this is not set, the value of the `Host` header (if present) will be used. If neither are set, the host name from the requested URL is used. | If the `Host` header is included in `headers`, its value will be used as the `Host` header of the request. The `url` parameter will continue to specify the server to connect to. When sending HTTPS requests with client certificates at least one the following combinations must be included * ``tls_client_cert`` and ``tls_client_key`` * ``tls_client_cert_file`` and ``tls_client_key_file`` * ``tls_client_cert_env_variable`` and ``tls_client_key_env_variable`` > To validate TLS server certificates, the user must also provide trusted root CA certificates through the ``tls_ca_cert``, ``tls_ca_cert_file`` and ``tls_ca_cert_env_variable`` fields. If the ``tls_use_system_certs`` field is ``true``, the system certificate pool will be used as well as any additional CA certificates. The `response` object parameter will contain the following fields: | Field | Type | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | `status` | `string` | HTTP status message (e.g., `"200 OK"`). | | `status_code` | `number` | HTTP status code (e.g., `200`). | | `body` | `any` | Any JSON value. If the HTTP response message body was not deserialized from JSON, this field is set to `null`. | | `raw_body` | `string` | The entire raw HTTP response message body represented as a string. | | `headers` | `object` | An object containing the response headers. The values will be an array of strings, repeated headers are grouped under the same keys with all values in the array. | The table below shows examples of calling `http.send`: | Example | Comments | | -------- |-----------| | Accessing Google using System Cert Pool | ``http.send({"method": "get", "url": "https://www.google.com", "tls_use_system_certs": true })`` | | Files containing TLS material | ``http.send({"method": "get", "url": "https://127.0.0.1:65331", "tls_ca_cert_file": "testdata/ca.pem", "tls_client_cert_file": "testdata/client-cert.pem", "tls_client_key_file": "testdata/client-key.pem"})`` | | Environment variables containing TLS material | ``http.send({"method": "get", "url": "https://127.0.0.1:65360", "tls_ca_cert_env_variable": "CLIENT_CA_ENV", "tls_client_cert_env_variable": "CLIENT_CERT_ENV", "tls_client_key_env_variable": "CLIENT_KEY_ENV"})`` | ### Net | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``net.cidr_contains(cidr, cidr_or_ip)`` | `output` is `true` if `cidr_or_ip` (e.g. `127.0.0.64/26` or `127.0.0.1`) is contained within `cidr` (e.g. `127.0.0.1/24`) and false otherwise. Supports both IPv4 and IPv6 notations.| | ``output := net.cidr_contains_matches(cidrs, cidrs_or_ips)`` | `output` is a `set` of tuples identifying matches where `cidrs_or_ips` are contained within `cidrs`. This function is similar to `net.cidr_contains` except it allows callers to pass collections of CIDRs or IPs as arguments and returns the matches (as opposed to a boolean result indicating a match between two CIDRs/IPs.) See below for examples. | | ``net.cidr_intersects(cidr1, cidr2)`` | `output` is `true` if `cidr1` (e.g. `192.168.0.0/16`) overlaps with `cidr2` (e.g. `192.168.1.0/24`) and false otherwise. Supports both IPv4 and IPv6 notations.| | ``net.cidr_expand(cidr)`` | `output` is the set of hosts in `cidr` (e.g., `net.cidr_expand("192.168.0.0/30")` generates 4 hosts: `{"192.168.0.0", "192.168.0.1", "192.168.0.2", "192.168.0.3"}` | **`net.cidr_contains_matches` examples** The `output := net.cidr_contains_matches(a, b)` function allows callers to supply strings, arrays, sets, or objects for either `a` or `b`. The `output` value in all cases is a set of tuples (2-element arrays) that identify matches, i.e., elements of `b` contained by elements of `a`. The first tuple element refers to the match in `a` and the second tuple element refers to the match in `b`. | Input Type | Output Type | | --- | --- | | `string` | `string` | | `array` | `array` index | | `set` | `set` element | | `object` | `object` key | ```live:netcidrcontainsmatches:module:hidden package netcidrcontainsmatches ``` If both operands are string values the function is similar to `net.cidr_contains`. ```live:netcidrcontainsmatches/strings:query:merge_down net.cidr_contains_matches("1.1.1.0/24", "1.1.1.128") ``` ```live:netcidrcontainsmatches/strings:output ``` Either (or both) operand(s) may be an array, set, or object. ```live:netcidrcontainsmatches/array:query:merge_down net.cidr_contains_matches(["1.1.1.0/24", "1.1.2.0/24"], "1.1.1.128") ``` ```live:netcidrcontainsmatches/array:output ``` The array/set/object elements may be arrays. In that case, the first element must be a valid CIDR/IP. ```live:netcidrcontainsmatches/tuples:query:merge_down net.cidr_contains_matches([["1.1.0.0/16", "foo"], "1.1.2.0/24"], ["1.1.1.128", ["1.1.254.254", "bar"]]) ``` ```live:netcidrcontainsmatches/tuples:output ``` If the operand is a set, the outputs are matching elements. If the operand is an object, the outputs are matching keys. ```live:netcidrcontainsmatches/sets_and_objects:query:merge_down net.cidr_contains_matches({["1.1.0.0/16", "foo"], "1.1.2.0/24"}, {"x": "1.1.1.128", "y": ["1.1.254.254", "bar"]}) ``` ```live:netcidrcontainsmatches/sets_and_objects:output:merge_down ``` ### UUID | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``output := uuid.rfc4122(str)`` | ``output`` is ``string`` representing a version 4 uuid. For any given str the output will be consistent throughout a query evaluation. | ### Rego | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``output := rego.parse_module(filename, string)`` | ``rego.parse_module`` parses the input ``string`` as a Rego module and returns the AST as a JSON object ``output``. | ### OPA | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``output := opa.runtime()`` | ``opa.runtime`` returns a JSON object ``output`` that describes the runtime environment where OPA is deployed. **Caution**: Policies that depend on the output of ``opa.runtime`` may return different answers depending on how OPA was started. If possible, prefer using an explicit `input` or `data` value instead of `opa.runtime`. The ``output`` of ``opa.runtime`` will include a ``"config"`` key if OPA was started with a configuration file. The ``output`` of ``opa.runtime`` will include a ``"env"`` key containing the environment variables that the OPA process was started with. The ``output`` of ``opa.runtime`` will include ``"version"`` and ``"commit"`` keys containing the semantic version and build commit of OPA. | ### Debugging | Built-in | Description | | ------- |-------------| | ``trace(string)`` | ``trace`` outputs the debug message ``string`` as a ``Note`` event in the query explanation. For example, ``trace("Hello There!")`` includes ``Note "Hello There!"`` in the query explanation. To print variables, use sprintf. For example, ``person := "Bob"; trace(sprintf("Hello There! %v", [person]))`` will emit ``Note "Hello There! Bob"``. | ## Reserved Names The following words are reserved and cannot be used as variable names, rule names, or dot-access style reference arguments: ``` as default else false import package not null true with ``` ## Grammar Rego’s syntax is defined by the following grammar: ``` module = package { import } policy package = "package" ref import = "import" package [ "as" var ] policy = { rule } rule = [ "default" ] rule-head { rule-body } rule-head = var [ "(" rule-args ")" ] [ "[" term "]" ] [ ( ":=" | "=" ) term ] rule-args = term { "," term } rule-body = [ "else" [ "=" term ] ] "{" query "}" query = literal { ( ";" | ( [CR] LF ) ) literal } literal = ( some-decl | expr | "not" expr ) { with-modifier } with-modifier = "with" term "as" term some-decl = "some" var { "," var } expr = term | expr-call | expr-infix expr-call = var [ "." var ] "(" [ term { "," term } ] ")" expr-infix = [ term "=" ] term infix-operator term term = ref | var | scalar | array | object | set | array-compr | object-compr | set-compr array-compr = "[" term "|" rule-body "]" set-compr = "{" term "|" rule-body "}" object-compr = "{" object-item "|" rule-body "}" infix-operator = bool-operator | arith-operator | bin-operator bool-operator = "==" | "!=" | "<" | ">" | ">=" | "<=" arith-operator = "+" | "-" | "*" | "/" bin-operator = "&" | "|" ref = ( var | array | object | set | array-compr | object-compr | set-compr | expr-call ) { ref-arg } ref-arg = ref-arg-dot | ref-arg-brack ref-arg-brack = "[" ( scalar | var | array | object | set | "_" ) "]" ref-arg-dot = "." var var = ( ALPHA | "_" ) { ALPHA | DIGIT | "_" } scalar = string | NUMBER | TRUE | FALSE | NULL string = STRING | raw-string raw-string = "`" { CHAR-"`" } "`" array = "[" term { "," term } "]" object = "{" object-item { "," object-item } "}" object-item = ( scalar | ref | var ) ":" term set = empty-set | non-empty-set non-empty-set = "{" term { "," term } "}" empty-set = "set(" ")" ``` The grammar defined above makes use of the following syntax. See [the Wikipedia page on EBNF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Backus–Naur_Form) for more details: ``` [] optional (zero or one instances) {} repetition (zero or more instances) | alternation (one of the instances) () grouping (order of expansion) STRING JSON string NUMBER JSON number TRUE JSON true FALSE JSON false NULL JSON null CHAR Unicode character ALPHA ASCII characters A-Z and a-z DIGIT ASCII characters 0-9 CR Carriage Return LF Line Feed ```